Spanish conquest of Peru

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Background

By the 16th century, the Inca Empire had seen many years of strong leadership. Huayna Capac, the Inca in power when Europeans began to arrive in South America, was respected and admired throughout the Inca empire.

Both Huayna Capac and his designated heir died of what was most likely smallpox. The uncertainty that ensued after his death sealed the fate of the Inca empire. Without a clear lineage, the empire was thrown into civil war. One of Huayna's sons, Huascar, may have been named the new emperor, though no records remain to confirm that he was indeed the intended heir. Regarded as ugly, bad mannered and half-mad, Huascar came close to murdering his sister and mother and forced his sister to marry him. Despite his cruelty, Huascar was well-liked in the southern regions of the empire. Another of Huayna Capac's favored sons, Atahualpa, was chosen to govern the Northern Territory known as the Kingdom of Quito (modern-day Ecuador and southern Colombia).

After a few years of relative peace, war broke out between the two brothers. It is estimated that 100,000 people were killed in this bloodthirsty dispute known as the War of the Two Brothers. After many struggles, Atahualpa finally defeated Huascar. Atahualpa himself became half-mad and treated the losers terribly. Many had stones dropped on their backs to cripple them. Nearly 1500 members of the royal family were cut up in front of Huascar, including his children. Fetuses were ripped from wombs and bodies were stuck on spikes for display.

Atahualpa paid a terrible price for his cruelty. His empire had been shaken and weakened. It was at this critical moment that ‘strange bearded men’ arrived on the coast of present-day Peru. These men turned out to be Conquistadors from Spain, led by Francisco Pizarro.

The Conquest

After Atahualpa’s victory against his brother Huascar, he began his southward march from Quito to claim the Inca throne in Cuzco. Hearing tales of Pizarro and his men, Atahualpa sent an emissary to invite the Spanish to his camp in the Andean city of Cajamarca. Pizarro and his 150 men ascended into the mountains in November, 1532.

Pizarro sent a messenger to Atahualpa asking for a meeting, to which Atahualpa agreed. When Atahualpa arrived at the main square in Cajamarca, he and a small contingent of honor guards were met by the friar Vicente de Valverde. Through a translator, Valverde delivered the ‘Requirement,’ indicating that Atahualpa and his people must convert to Christianity, and if he refused he would be considered an enemy of the Church and of Spain.

Atahualpa’s refusal led to a bloody battle that resulted in the Inca’s capture by the Spanish on November 16, 1532, and they held Atahualpa in Cajamarca's main temple. The Spanish, greatly outnumbered, were able to convince Atahualpa's generals not to attack by threatening to kill their king. In exchange for his release, Atahualpa agreed to fill a large room with gold and promised the Spanish twice that amount in silver. Pizarro in fact had no intention of releasing the Inca because he needed the emperor's influence over the native people to maintain order.

Meanwhile, the captive Huascar was slain not far from Cajamarca. Atahualpa feared that as long as Huascar lived, Pizarro might not need him, for Huascar would make a better puppet ruler than him. Atahualpa feared for his life and so ordered Huascar's execution.

Months passed, and as it became clear to Atahualpa that the Spanish did not intend to free him, he began to call on his generals to launch an attack on the Spanish. Still outnumbered and fearing an imminent attack from the Inca general Rumiñavi, the Spanish saw Atahualpa as too much of a liability and chose to have him executed. Pizarro and the Spanish decided to charge Atahualpa with 12 crimes, the most important being attempting to revolt against the Spanish, practicing idolatry and murdering Huascar. Atahualpa was found guilty of all 12 charges, and was sentenced to execution by burning. After being led to the place of execution, Atahualpa begged for his life. Valverde told Atahualpa that if he agreed to convert he would reduce the sentence. Atahualpa agreed to be baptized and was strangled instead of being burned. Atahualpa died on August 29, 1533.

The situation went quickly downhill. Pizarro installed Atahualpa's brother Tupac Huallpa as a "puppet Inca" until he died unexpectedly. As things began to fall apart, many parts of the Inca Empire revolted, and in some cases joined with the Spanish against the Incas.

Rebellion and reconquest

Some successful Inca rebellions against the Spanish did occur, such as when Manco Inca, next in line after Tupac Huallpa, organized the recapture of Cuzco from the Spanish in 1536. But Spanish reinforcements arrived and took the city once again. Diego de Almagro, originally one of Francisco Pizarro's party, returned from his exploration of Chile disappointed that he had not found wealth similar to that which had been found in Peru. The King of Spain had awarded the city of Cuzco to Pizarro, but Almagro attempted to claim the city nonetheless. Manco Inca hoped to use the disagreement between Almagro and Pizarro to his advantage. However, Inca revolts such as these were small and short-lived, and the Incas still did not have the full support of the other indigenous groups in Peru.

After the Spanish Conquest

The Incan Empire was brought down by fewer than 200 of Pizarro's men and 27 horses. Pizarro and later Spaniards repressed the Incas and their traditions, and destroyed their farming system. The Spanish made less of the cultivation of most of the Incas' crops, such as quinoa and important root crops.

Lands and crops were neglected and the Incas experienced a famine unlike anything they had seen before. The Incas, now wise to the Spanish motives of robbing the empire of its gold and silver, started looting and hiding their treasures.

Disease also contributed to the empire's downfall. European diseases unfamiliar to Incas were steadily killing the populace in droves. Gold was plentiful and prices soared. Grain became more valuable than the Spaniards' precious gold. The great Inca civilization, as it was known, no longer existed.

The languages of the empire, Quechua and Aymara, were chosen by the Catholic church to evangelize in the Incan area. They even taught them to Indians who had never been subject to the empire. Today they are the most extended Amerindian languages.

The Spanish used the mita work service for the mining of silver at Potosí, Bolivia.

The later rebellion led by Tupac Amaru is the source of the names of 20th century South American guerrillas Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru (MRTA), and the Uruguayan Tupamaros.

The Inca planned economy (and Maoism) are the inspiration of today's Peruvian guerrilla Sendero Luminoso.

See also

• Inca Empire
• Spanish colonization of the Americas
• History of Peru
• Conquest of the Incas, John Hemming, 1970.